Breeding

Pair Formation

Spring migrants occur in flocks of 2–20 birds at sites just south of breeding grounds (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ). Pairs begin to form within a few days of arrival on breeding grounds, most formed by mid-May.

Nest Building

Scrapes found from late Apr to mid-May in Alberta (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ).

First/Only Brood Per Season

Typically, birds begin to lay eggs 12–15 d after arrival on breeding grounds (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close , TLT). In Québec, the only confirmed nest of Lesser Yellowlegs was found on 13 Jun (Gauthier and Aubry 1996b Gauthier, J., and Y. Aubry (1996). Les Oiseaux Nicheurs du Québec: Atlas des Oiseaux Nicheurs du Québec Meridional. Environnment Canada, Région du Québec: Association Québécoise des groupes d'ornithologues, Sociétié Québécoise de protection des oiseaux, Service Canadien de la Faune, Quebec, Canada. Close ). In Ontario, a 2-egg nest was found on 4 Jun and downy young on 9 and 10 Jul (Peck and James 1983 Peck, G. K., and R. D. James (1983). Breeding Birds of Ontario: Nidiology and Distribution Volume 1: Nonpasserines. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, ON, Canada. Close ). In Manitoba, egg dates range from 10 Jun to 10 Jul; hatch generally occurs the first week of July (Jehl and Smith 1970 Jehl, J. R., Jr., and B. A. Smith (1970). Birds of the Churchill region, Manitoba. Special Publication no. 1. Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Close ). In Alberta and Manitoba, 38 clutches were found 15 May–16 Jun (Bent 1927 Bent, A. C. (1927). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 1. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 142. Close ); a nest with 2 eggs found on 1 May in Alberta was considered unusually early (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ). First hatchlings in Alberta detected on 4 Jun (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close ). In British Columbia, 5 clutches were found 4–16 Jun; of 21 broods found between 13 Jun and 17 Jul, over half (12/21) found 24 Jun–3 Jul (Campbell et al. 1990b Campbell, R. W., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser, and M. C. E. McNall (1990). The Birds of British Columbia. Volume I. Introduction and Loons through Waterfowl. Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Close ).

In the Northwest Territories, eggs collected 15–20 Jun near Fort Anderson (R. MacFarlane in Cooke 1910 Cooke, W. W. (1910). Distribution and migration of North American shorebirds. U.S. Department of Agriculture Biological Survey Bulletin 35. Close ) and 1 Jun at Fort Resolution (Kennicott in Cooke 1910 Cooke, W. W. (1910). Distribution and migration of North American shorebirds. U.S. Department of Agriculture Biological Survey Bulletin 35. Close ); 1 nest hatched between 29 Jun and 5 Jul and newly hatched young noted on 21 Jul on the Mackenzie River delta (Porsild 1943 Porsild, A. E. (1943). Birds of the Mackenzie delta. Canadian Field-Naturalist 57:19–35. Close ). In s. Yukon Territory, 15 records of flightless young ranged in date from 17 Jun to 23 Jul (P. Sinclair pers. comm.). In ne. Alaska, 3-egg nest with incubating bird discovered on 20 Jun; almost volant chicks and fully-feathered young seen on 27 Jul and 2 Aug, respectively (Kessel and Schaller 1960 Kessel, B., and G. B. Schaller (1960). Birds of the Upper Sheenjek valley, northeastern Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska 4:1-58. Close ). In n.-central Alaska, nest with 4 slightly incubated eggs found on 13 Jun (Irving 1960a Irving, L. (1960). Birds of Anaktuvuk Pass Kobuk and Old Crow: A study in Arctic adaptation. Bulletin of the United States National Museum 217:1–409. Close ). In sw. Alaska, newly hatched chicks found between 14 and 27 Jun at Lake Clark National Park (P. Tomkovich unpubl.), and median hatch date was 12 Jun (range = 1 Jun–5 Jul, n = 3 yr) in upper Cook Inlet (TLT unpubl.). See also Figure 4.

Second Brood Per Season

Nests and downy young found as late as early July at many sites suggests renesting occurs after eggs are lost, but this has never been documented with marked individuals. Most likely, only a single brood is raised per season.

Selection Process

No information.

Microhabitat

A ground nester. Typically nests on dry, mossy ridges or hummocks, next to fallen branches and logs, and underneath low (<1 m) shrubs or small (1–2 m) trees (Rowan 1929 Rowan, W. (1929). Notes on Alberta waders included on the British list, Part VII. British Birds 23:2-17. Close , Campbell et al. 1990b Campbell, R. W., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser, and M. C. E. McNall (1990). The Birds of British Columbia. Volume I. Introduction and Loons through Waterfowl. Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Close , WFVZ Nest Record data). Sites densely vegetated and often characterized by standing dead shrubs or trees. Numerous species of plants reported in the vicinity of nests, especially birches (Betula spp.), willows (Salix spp.), sweet gale (Myrica gale), Labrador Tea (Ledum groenlandicum), arctic rose (Rosa acicularis), aspen (Populus tremuloides), poplar (P. balsamifera), and black spruce (R. MacFarlane in Bent 1927 Bent, A. C. (1927). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 1. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 142. Close , WFVZ Nest Record data).

Nests are usually well hidden and difficult to detect, although there are a few records of relatively exposed nests that were visible from a few meters (e.g., Irving 1960a Irving, L. (1960). Birds of Anaktuvuk Pass Kobuk and Old Crow: A study in Arctic adaptation. Bulletin of the United States National Museum 217:1–409. Close ). Nests are typically 30 - 200 m from a water source, such as a marshy lake outlet, drainage ditch, salt-marsh pool, river, lake, or slough (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close , WFVZ Nest Record data), but are also found within meters of small pools (Campbell et al. 1990b Campbell, R. W., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser, and M. C. E. McNall (1990). The Birds of British Columbia. Volume I. Introduction and Loons through Waterfowl. Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Close , Kessel and Schaller 1960 Kessel, B., and G. B. Schaller (1960). Birds of the Upper Sheenjek valley, northeastern Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska 4:1-58. Close ) and up to 850 m from any wetland (WFVZ Nest Record data).

Nests in coastal Alaska were on average 332 m ± 302 SD (range = 10–840, n = 17) from the wetland that was subsequently used as a first brood-rearing destination; in most cases, this was the one closest to the nest (TLT unpubl.). See also Habitat: breeding range, above, and photographs in Street (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close ) and Rowan (Rowan 1929 Rowan, W. (1929). Notes on Alberta waders included on the British list, Part VII. British Birds 23:2-17. Close ).

Site Characteristics

See Habitat: breeding range, above.

Construction Process

Little information. One male created a scrape by crouching and pressing its breast into moss; its mate perched nearby. Incubating birds add material to the nest (L. Oring in litt.).

Structure And Composition Matter

Depression in ground or moss, lined with dry grass, decayed leaves, spruce needles, moss and twig fragments, and other debris (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close , T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ). Lining consists of leaves and fragments of plants in the immediate vicinity of a nest (WFVZ Nest Record data, Irving 1960a Irving, L. (1960). Birds of Anaktuvuk Pass Kobuk and Old Crow: A study in Arctic adaptation. Bulletin of the United States National Museum 217:1–409. Close ).

Dimensions

In Alberta, nest cups measured 89–102 mm in diameter and 32–38 mm in depth (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close ). Seventeen nest cups in Alaska had an average outside diameter of 105 mm ± 23 SD (range = 70–135); mean depth with lining was 25 mm ± 8 SD (range = 12–40); mean depth without lining was 42 mm ± 9 SD (range = 30–60; TLT unpubl.).

Microclimate

No data. Typical nest sheltered on 1–3 sides by logs, sticks, or vegetation. Some completely surrounded by tall grass and sedge.

Maintenance Or Reuse Of Nests, Alternate Nests

Two instances of nest-cup reuse in a 4-yr period; 1 pair reused their nest cup after skipping a year during which they had paired with other mates, and another pair reused a nest cup that had been used by a different male (and possibly a different female) the previous year (TLT).

Nonbreeding Nests

Multiple scrapes constructed within 1–75 m of the one ultimately selected; birds may line many scrapes before laying eggs in one (Bent 1927 Bent, A. C. (1927). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 1. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 142. Close , Rowan 1929 Rowan, W. (1929). Notes on Alberta waders included on the British list, Part VII. British Birds 23:2-17. Close ).

Shape

Ovate pyriform (Bent 1927 Bent, A. C. (1927). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 1. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 142. Close ).

Size And Mass

In Alberta, eggs from 25 clutches (n = 98 eggs) averaged 42.34 mm in length (range = 38.99–46.40) and 29.21 mm in breadth (range = 27.56–30.95; WFVZ). Eggs from 13 clutches in Alaska (n = 51 eggs) averaged 42.32 mm in length (range = 40.84–44.55) and 29.33 mm in breadth (range 28.12–30.53; TLT unpubl.). Mean mass of 43 eggs from Alaska (n = 11 clutches) was 17.4 g (range = 14.5–20.4); the eggs that weighed the least were the ones measured closest to hatch. One 4-egg clutch 13 d prior to hatch weighed 91% (71.0 g) of the associated female's body mass at hatch (TLT).

Color

Ground color of eggs from 4 clutches in Alaska was smoke gray (44 and 45) and markings were a wide variety of browns, including sepia (119), burnt sienna (132), raw umber (223), mars brown (223A), burnt umber (22), dusky brown (19), fuscous (21), natal brown (219A) (color names and numbers after Smithe [Smithe 1975 Smithe, F. B. (1975). Naturalist's Color Guide. American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA. Close ]). Other authors describe eggs as follows: ground color of medium buff to buffy brown with vandyke-brown or purplish-gray spots (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ); ground color of pale olive green or greenish buff to coffee brown, with markings of reddish brown and dark chocolate overlaying pale purple (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close ); ground color of olive buff to cream buff or, less commonly, honey yellow to cartridge buff or light pinkish cinnamon to pinkish buff, with small markings of chocolate, liver brown, bay, and chestnut brown overlaying larger blotches of purple drab and ecru drab (Bent 1927 Bent, A. C. (1927). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 1. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 142. Close ). One albino egg was creamy white with a few small pale-brown spots (Bent 1927 Bent, A. C. (1927). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 1. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 142. Close ). Markings concentrated at larger end of egg and patterns similar within a clutch.

Surface Texture

Slightly glossy (Bent 1927 Bent, A. C. (1927). Life histories of North American shorebirds, Part 1. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 142. Close ).

Eggshell Thickness

Mean empty shell weight 0.873 g (range = 0.709–1.027) in 25 clutches (98 eggs) collected before 1947 when DDT was first widely used (WFVZ).

Clutch Size

Usually 4. Single records of 5- and 6-egg clutches, and several reports of nests with 3 well-incubated eggs; the 6-egg clutch incubated by 2 adults simultaneously (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ). Nineteen of 20 nests in s.-central Alaska contained 4 eggs, the remaining nest held 3 eggs and probably was a replacement clutch, because it was initiated late in the season (TLT).

Egg-Laying

May not commence for several days after nest cup constructed (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ). Females lay eggs consecutively at daily intervals (R. Harlow in WFVZ Nest Record data, TLT).

Onset Of Broodiness And Incubation In Relation To Laying

Incubation appears to begin with the laying of the second egg, i.e., birds flushed from 2-egg nests return promptly to resume incubating (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close , TLT).

Incubation Patches

Bilateral and in both sexes.

Incubation Period

22 to 23 d (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ).

Parental Behavior

Incubation shared by both parents (WFVZ Nest Record data, L. Oring in litt.). Incubating birds wait for mates to approach before leaving the nest. Pairs may perform brief relief ceremonies or incubating birds may leave before relieving birds arrive at the nest, but as soon as they land nearby (L. Oring in litt.). Birds travel the last several meters to the nest on foot (Rowan 1929 Rowan, W. (1929). Notes on Alberta waders included on the British list, Part VII. British Birds 23:2-17. Close ).

Hardiness Of Eggs

Of 15 complete clutches that survived to hatch: 12 hatched 4 chicks, 2 hatched 3 chicks and contained single unhatched eggs with under-developed embryos, and 1 held 4 eggs with fully-developed embryos that failed to emerge after pipping their eggs (TLT).

Little information. Eggs in a few nests hatched within 2–12 h of each other (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close , TLT). Starred about 3 d and pipped about 1 d before hatching (TLT).

Parental Assistance And Disposal Of Eggshells

One bird flew from a nest with an eggshell in its bill and dropped it about 50 m away (D. Ward pers. comm.). Only small bits of eggshells found in recently hatched nests.

Condition At Hatching

See Appearance, below. Precocial, although movements are slow and not completely coordinated until several hours post-hatch. Most chicks lose the egg tooth before leaving the nest (TLT). Eighteen incubator-hatched chicks from Manitoba weighed on average 11.97 g (SD = 0.96) within 6 h of hatch (Ricklefs 1984a Ricklefs, R. E. (1984a). Egg dimensions and neonatal mass of shorebirds. Condor 86:7–11. Close ). For 103 chicks captured within 1–24 h of hatch in Alaska, average mass (g ± SD) was 11.1 ± 1.2, average length (mm ± SD) of exposed culmen and diagonal tarsus were 12.7 ± 0.9 and 31.1 ± 1.3, respectively (TLT unpubl.). Hatchling's culmens are about 35%, and tarsii about 60%, of adult length.

Growth And Development

No available information.

Brooding

Both parents brood. Chicks are brooded in the nest for up to several hours after hatching, thereafter outside the nest for short bouts (sometimes only seconds) at frequent intervals over the next few days at least. Chicks solicit brooding by peeping loudly as they walk toward the parent. Adults give soft kip, cup, and keup notes to direct chicks toward themselves. Chicks are brooded in the typical manner; i.e., parents face chicks, crouch, and ruffle breast feathers so that chicks can burrow easily into them (Figure 5). Parents will brood young chicks even under stressful circumstances (e.g., when humans are within a few meters).

Feeding

Chicks feed themselves upon departure from nest. Peck at insects and insect larvae on the ground, in water, off plant stems, and out of the air. Initially, both parents lead the brood to foraging areas (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close , T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ).

Nest Sanitation

Not applicable.

Parental Carrying Of Young

Never observed.

Not known to occur in this species.

Not known to occur in this species.

Departure From Nest

Young depart the nest within several hours of all eggs hatching and once all chicks are dry (Street 1923 Street, J. F. (1923). On the nesting grounds of the Solitary Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-Legs. Auk 40:577-583. Close , L. Oring unpubl.). Initially, broodmates stay close together and are found within centimeters of each other. In one case, however, a male led 3 chicks to a nearby pond a few hours after the last egg hatched, while the female remained overnight in the nest cup with the chick that hatched last; both parents and brood were together 20 h later (TLT).

Within days chicks begin to wander; 5-d-old brood-mates are often found about 25 m apart. To move the brood, a parent flies ahead of the chicks, lands on a tree or the ground, and gives cup and kip calls to encourage the chicks to move toward it. Meanwhile, the remaining parent scans for predators from a vantage point near the brood and walks along with any slow-moving chicks. As the brood proceeds, chicks pause frequently for foraging or brooding.

Association With Parents, Or Other Young

Most broods are cared for by both parents for the first several days after hatching, thereafter by a single parent, generally the male. In Alaska, females on average attended the brood for 11 d (range = 4–16 d, n = 18 broods) and males for 26 d (23–31 d, n = 10; TLT unpubl.). Length of brood attendance appeared related to habitat conditions and time of season. In years with relatively abundant wetland habitat, males remained with broods 2–4 d after chicks fledged, whereas when wetlands were limited, males deserted broods immediately after chicks fledged. Females of late-hatching broods attended them for fewer days than females of early-hatching broods.

Ability To Get Around, Feed And Care For Self

Chicks are precocial (See Parental care: feeding, above). Time between hatching and first flight 22–23 d, and time between hatching and independence 23–31 d (TLT unpubl.).

After fledging, immatures make local movements to nearby staging areas where they join flocks of conspecifics and other shorebirds (T. Randall in Bannerman 1961 Bannerman, D. A. (1961). The birds of the British Isles. Vol. 9. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd. Close ). At coastal breeding areas in Alaska, immatures may remain on adjacent upland brood-rearing areas for 2–3 d after the last parent has departed before joining shorebird flocks on the coast (TLT).