Sounds and Vocal Behavior

Often reported to be relatively quiet, calling only occasionally and briefly (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close , 390 Gordon, S. (1955). The Golden Eagle; King of Birds. Citadel Press, New York, NY, USA. Close ), however, several studies and observations suggest that the Golden Eagle vocalizes more than previously realized and uses a wide variety of calls for many purposes. There is no information on geographic variation of vocalizations. Use of sound-enabled video cameras at nests will likely add new information about the development and repertoire of vocalizations of nestlings and their parents. Likewise, as telemetry and audio and video recording technology improve, the vocal repertoire of free-flying eagles can be recorded and more thoroughly understood.

There are few studies of vocalizations and nearly all from captive settings with very small sample sizes. Furthermore, descriptions of calls often don’t translate well to the written word as each author transliterates sounds into their own words. To simplify our descriptions of these sounds, we have retained from the literature only those descriptions that are universally onomatopoetic (e.g., chirp and cheep), and we parenthetically reference those that may be less universally understood (e.g., "yarp" and "yap").

Development

Nestlings can start vocalizing with a hoarse chirp up to two days before hatching (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ). The clear chirp of newly hatched nestlings (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ) rapidly develops as a series of chirp or cheep calls (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ) and high-pitched chitter (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ). By 10 days of age, nestlings may perform a more complex chirp (“rattle-chirp”; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ). By 40 days of age, many nestling calls are indistinguishable from those of their parents (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ). Jollie (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ) reported that many nestlings add grunts and moans to their vocalizations as they become older. For additional details, see Vocal Array.

Vocal Array

Most calls made by young nestlings differ substantially from those made by juveniles, subadults, and adults (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close , 389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close , 2 Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom. Close , 388 Ellis, D. H., and N. J. Schmitt (2017). Behavior of the Golden Eagle: An Illustrated Ethogram. Hancock House Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA. Close ).

Nestling calls can be harsh and whistle-like (391 Cameron, E. S. (1908). Observations on the Golden Eagle in Montana. Auk 3: 251–268. Close ) or low pitched and resonant. At times, they can be heard > 1.6 km from nests (391 Cameron, E. S. (1908). Observations on the Golden Eagle in Montana. Auk 3: 251–268. Close , 311 Dixon, J. B. (1937). The Golden Eagle in San Diego County, California. Condor 39: 49–56. Close ). Calls made almost exclusively by nestlings include:

• A disyllabic call used prior to 15 days of age (“tsik"; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• A separate disyllabic call with a high pitched and prolonged first syllable and a short, low frequency and tapered second syllable ("seeir"; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ). This call has only been recorded by nestlings > 15 days of age (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• A drawn out and repeated call heard as a whistle followed by a lower frequency note ("Pssa"; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ). This has been recorded by birds between 25 and 40 days of age (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• A dog-like barking call only heard after 52 days of age ("skonk"; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).

The distinct vocalizations documented by different older age classes of eagles, include:

• A drawn-out clear monosyllabic call or whistle ("chirp"; 392 Sumner, E. L., Jr. (1929c). Notes on the growth and behavior of young Golden Eagles. Auk 46: 161–169. Close , 389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ), and a "falsetto chirp” (392 Sumner, E. L., Jr. (1929c). Notes on the growth and behavior of young Golden Eagles. Auk 46: 161–169. Close ) that is repeated at intervals or groups (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• An extremely rapid, high frequency chitter (“rattle-chirp”; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• A dog-like bark call, distinct from the above call (“wonk"; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• A very plaintive or shrill call (“cherop”; 393 Camenzind, F. J. (1968). Nesting ecology and behavior of the Golden Eagle in West Central Utah. M.S. thesis, Brigham Young University, Salt Lake City, UT, USA Close ).
• A shorter and higher frequency bark (“wip"; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• A drawn out, low frequency whine that resembles the honk of a goose (“honk"; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ). This call has only been recorded in captivity (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• A blowing or hissing sound (“hiss”; 392 Sumner, E. L., Jr. (1929c). Notes on the growth and behavior of young Golden Eagles. Auk 46: 161–169. Close , 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).
• A deep rasping "croak" (392 Sumner, E. L., Jr. (1929c). Notes on the growth and behavior of young Golden Eagles. Auk 46: 161–169. Close ).
• Mewing cries used during displays (“weee-o"; 32 Brown, L. H., and D. Amadon (1968). Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA. Close ).
• Thin shrill calls (“pleek" or "tsewk"; 32 Brown, L. H., and D. Amadon (1968). Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA. Close ).
• A loud duck-like call (“wak-wak-wak"; 394 Hobbie, J. E., and T. J. Cade (1962). Observations of breeding Golden Eagles at Lake Peters in northern Alaska. Condor 64: 235–237. Close ).

Jollie (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ) described high-pitched far-carrying calls ("yelps"). Gordon (390 Gordon, S. (1955). The Golden Eagle; King of Birds. Citadel Press, New York, NY, USA. Close ) also described deep liquid babbling notes by adults. It is not clear how these calls relate to those noted above. In contrast, the loud clear yelping “weeeo-hyo-hyo-hyo" and clucking "tsyuck-tsyuck" (from nestlings when soliciting food) calls described by Brown and Amadon (32 Brown, L. H., and D. Amadon (1968). Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA. Close ) were interpreted by Ellis (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ) as the “skonk-wonk-wonk-wonk" and "pssa-pssa" calls, respectively. Many field researchers report a loud single-syllable call, often emitted as a series, by nestlings, juveniles, subadults, and adults (“Yarp”, often given in an extended series “yarp-yarp-yarp-yarp”) (CLM, KS, MNK, EHC).

Geographic Variation

Not known.

Phenology

Vocalize throughout the year (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ), but possibly more frequently in the nesting period. During nesting, mated eagles are said to vocalize more than unmated individuals (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ). Information on vocalizations of non-territorial eagles during the nesting season is very limited, and information on vocalizations of all age classes outside the nesting season is almost non-existent.

Daily Pattern of Vocalizing

Limited information. A pair in the northern Brooks Range, Alaska, was reported to vocalize nearly every day in May (394 Hobbie, J. E., and T. J. Cade (1962). Observations of breeding Golden Eagles at Lake Peters in northern Alaska. Condor 64: 235–237. Close ).

Places of Vocalizing

Limited information. Nestlings call from the nest, parents respond in the nest or from nearby. Adults vocalize from perches near the nest (395 Crane, K., and K. Nellist (1999). Island Eagles: 20 Years Observing Golden Eagles on the Isle of Skye. Cartwheeling Press, Isle of Skye, Scotland. Close , 388 Ellis, D. H., and N. J. Schmitt (2017). Behavior of the Golden Eagle: An Illustrated Ethogram. Hancock House Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA. Close ) and in flight, particularly just before prey or nesting material delivery, and during incubation exchanges (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close , 388 Ellis, D. H., and N. J. Schmitt (2017). Behavior of the Golden Eagle: An Illustrated Ethogram. Hancock House Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA. Close , KS). Young that have left the nest often vocalize from the base of the nesting cliff (KS).

Sex Differences

Dixon (311 Dixon, J. B. (1937). The Golden Eagle in San Diego County, California. Condor 39: 49–56. Close ) and Jollie (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ) reported that pitches of individual males and females differ enough in tone to be distinguishable, with males having a more high-pitched voice and females a more “barking” voice. There have been no detailed studies of difference in sounds of male and females. However, Ellis (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ) described a call made only by adult females on the nest when eaglets appear to be threatened. Similarly, adult males were never heard to use the female’s copulation call, which she is reported to make just before, during and briefly after copulation (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).

Repertoire and Delivery of Songs

Not applicable, as Golden Eagle does not sing.

Social Context and Presumed Functions of Vocalizations

Most calls of nestlings and recently fledged birds appear to have a food-begging function (391 Cameron, E. S. (1908). Observations on the Golden Eagle in Montana. Auk 3: 251–268. Close , 389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close , 345 Hickman, G. L. (1968). The ecology and breeding biology of the Golden Eagle in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Washington, DC, USA. Close , 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close , 2 Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom. Close ). Nestlings call frequently as soon as they hatch (392 Sumner, E. L., Jr. (1929c). Notes on the growth and behavior of young Golden Eagles. Auk 46: 161–169. Close ), giving cheep calls nearly constantly when awake during the first two to three weeks post-hatching (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ), and sometimes with great persistence throughout the brood-rearing period (391 Cameron, E. S. (1908). Observations on the Golden Eagle in Montana. Auk 3: 251–268. Close ). Their typical call note becomes progressively louder and harsher with age (2 Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom. Close ). The frequency of vocalizations decreases by 6 weeks of age (389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close ). Vocalizations of nestlings and fledglings also are associated with temperature stress, aggression, food begging, or the appearance of a parent (32 Brown, L. H., and D. Amadon (1968). Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA. Close , 345 Hickman, G. L. (1968). The ecology and breeding biology of the Golden Eagle in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Washington, DC, USA. Close , 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close , 396 O'Toole, L. T., P. L. Kennedy, R. L. Knight, and L. C. McEwen (1999). Postfledging behavior of Golden Eagles. Wilson Bulletin 111: 472–477. Close , 2 Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom. Close ). Ellis (78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ) heard chirp calls only at feeding time or when tiny nestlings were exposed to hot or cold weather. Feeding-specific calls are also used by older nestlings and fledglings (“pssa”; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ). Nestlings may vocalize or hiss when a human intruder enters the nest (392 Sumner, E. L., Jr. (1929c). Notes on the growth and behavior of young Golden Eagles. Auk 46: 161–169. Close , 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ) or may emit harsh high-pitched chattering during interactions with other nestlings that appear aggressive or angry (32 Brown, L. H., and D. Amadon (1968). Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA. Close ). Nestlings perform barking calls when other avian species, such as Ring-billed Gull (Larus delawarensis), Franklin’s Gull (Leucophaeus pipixcan), and American Kestrel (Falco sparverius), pass close to their nest (“skonk";78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ). Nestlings > 49 days of age often vocalize when approached by a small helicopter during aerial surveys in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska (CLM). It is not known if these are food begging or stress responses. Similarly, a 64-d old nestling was reported to bark multiple times when a helicopter passed about 300 m from its nest (“skonk"; 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close ).

Fledglings also use vocalizations to communicate with their siblings and parents (391 Cameron, E. S. (1908). Observations on the Golden Eagle in Montana. Auk 3: 251–268. Close , 397 Ikeda, Y. (1987). Ecological research on the Japanese Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos japonica during the post-fledgling period in the Hakusan Range. Journal of Raptor Research 21: 79–80. Close , 396 O'Toole, L. T., P. L. Kennedy, R. L. Knight, and L. C. McEwen (1999). Postfledging behavior of Golden Eagles. Wilson Bulletin 111: 472–477. Close , 398 Walker, D. G. (1987). Observations on the post-fledging period of the Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, in England. Ibis 129: 92–96. Close , 2 Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom. Close , 388 Ellis, D. H., and N. J. Schmitt (2017). Behavior of the Golden Eagle: An Illustrated Ethogram. Hancock House Publishers, Blaine, Washington, USA. Close ). Mutual calling between fledged siblings or fledged siblings and their parents is thought to have facilitated parents finding their offspring in forested habitat in Japan (397 Ikeda, Y. (1987). Ecological research on the Japanese Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos japonica during the post-fledgling period in the Hakusan Range. Journal of Raptor Research 21: 79–80. Close ). In North Dakota, during the 42 days after fledging, the juvenile call rate nearly doubled when a parent was present (mean 21.8 calls/h ± 3.526 SE) versus when parents were absent (mean 11.5 calls/h ± 1.739 SE) (396 O'Toole, L. T., P. L. Kennedy, R. L. Knight, and L. C. McEwen (1999). Postfledging behavior of Golden Eagles. Wilson Bulletin 111: 472–477. Close ). The number of calls per hour by juveniles does not differ between sexes (396 O'Toole, L. T., P. L. Kennedy, R. L. Knight, and L. C. McEwen (1999). Postfledging behavior of Golden Eagles. Wilson Bulletin 111: 472–477. Close ). During the post-fledging dependency period in southwestern Idaho, young vocalize in the presence of adults and as far as 2 km from the nest (KS).

During the breeding period, vocalizations are associated with territorial displays and behaviors, copulation, nest-building, entering a nest, changing places during incubation, threatening or alarming situations, food deliveries, meeting or approaching a mate, coming into an evening roost, or in response to human intruders approaching a nest (392 Sumner, E. L., Jr. (1929c). Notes on the growth and behavior of young Golden Eagles. Auk 46: 161–169. Close , 311 Dixon, J. B. (1937). The Golden Eagle in San Diego County, California. Condor 39: 49–56. Close , 389 Jollie, M. T. (1943). The Golden Eagle-its life history, behavior, and ecology. M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. Close , 394 Hobbie, J. E., and T. J. Cade (1962). Observations of breeding Golden Eagles at Lake Peters in northern Alaska. Condor 64: 235–237. Close , 393 Camenzind, F. J. (1968). Nesting ecology and behavior of the Golden Eagle in West Central Utah. M.S. thesis, Brigham Young University, Salt Lake City, UT, USA Close , 78 Ellis, D. H. (1979). Development of behavior in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs 70:1–94. Close , 399 Ellis, D. H., and L. Powers (1982). Mating behavior in the Golden Eagle in non-fertilization contexts. Raptor Research 16: 134–136. Close , 248 Bergo, G. (1987). Territorial behaviour of Golden Eagles in western Norway. British Birds 80: 361–376. Close , 2 Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom. Close ). Territory holders in central California vocalize throughout the nesting season, perhaps as communication with mates or neighboring pairs, and their vocalizations can help human surveyors to locate nests (P. Kolar, personal communication). Territorial individuals in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska, often vocalize when they detect intruding eagles in their territory, but it is not known if eagles vocalize to delineate a territory (CLM).

Has been observed to vocalize when hunting pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) during winter in the Great Divide basin in Wyoming (308 Deblinger, R. D., and A. W. Alldredge (1996). Golden Eagle predation on pronghorns in Wyoming's Great Divide Basin. Journal of Raptor Research 30: 157–159. Close ). The pronghorns became alarmed when eagles vocalized while circling over the herd. In these situations, eagles circled, vocalized, and flew away from the group of pronghorns just prior to the initiation of a chase (308 Deblinger, R. D., and A. W. Alldredge (1996). Golden Eagle predation on pronghorns in Wyoming's Great Divide Basin. Journal of Raptor Research 30: 157–159. Close ). Wintering adults in eastern North America sometimes vocalize when feeding on carrion at baited capture stations most commonly in response to the presence of other eagles (TAM).

During a stoop, noise is generated by air rushing over the body. This noise is often loud enough to be heard by nearby humans. It is not known if this sound has a role in communication, but it seems plausible given the nature of territorial flights by eagles (see Behavior: Agonistic Behavior).